NADAR! ADS
Nutrição em Ultra-Endurance
Estado da Arte
Downloads
Palavras-chave:
Natação, Ciclismo, Sobrecarga, Hiponatremia Associada Ao Exercício, Inchaço Dos Membros, Ultramaratona, águas abertasResumo
Os atletas que competem em desportos de ultra-resistência devem gerir as questões nutricionais, especialmente no que diz respeito ao equilíbrio energético e hídrico. Uma prova de ultra-resistência, considerando duração de pelo menos 6 horas, pode induzir o balanço energético (ou seja, déficit energético) em níveis que podem atingir até ~7.000 kcal por dia. Esse balanço energético negativo é uma grande preocupação para a saúde e o desempenho, pois leva a uma diminuição da massa gorda e muscular esquelética em eventos como 24 horas de natação, 6 dias de ciclismo ou corrida de 17 dias. A anemia esportiva causada por exercícios intensos e desconforto gastrointestinal, sob condições ambientais quentes ou frias, também precisa ser considerada como um fator importante para a saúde e o desempenho em esportes de ultra-resistência. Além disso, as perdas de líquidos pelo suor podem atingir até 2 L/h devido ao aumento do trabalho metabólico durante exercícios prolongados e exercícios em ambientes quentes que podem resultar em hipohidratação. Os atletas correm um risco aumentado de hiponatremia associada ao exercício (HAE) e inchaço dos membros quando a ingestão de líquidos é maior do que o volume perdido. As estratégias nutricionais pré-prova ideais devem ter como objetivo aumentar a utilização de gordura durante o exercício, e o consumo de alimentos ricos em gordura pode ser considerado durante a prova, bem como carboidratos, eletrólitos e líquidos. Além disso, para reduzir o risco de HAE, a ingestão de líquidos deve incluir sódio em quantidades de 10 a 25 mmol para reduzir o risco de HAE e deve ser limitada a 300 a 600 mL por hora de prova.
Referências
(1) Zaryski C, Smith DJ. Training Principles and Issues for Ultra-endurance Athletes. Current Sports Medicine Reports. 2005 Jun;4(3):165–70.
(2) Williamson E. Nutritional implications for ultra-endurance walking and running events. Extreme Physiology & Medicine. 2016 Nov 21;5(1).
(3) Chiampas GT, Goyal AV. Innovative operations measures and nutritional support for mass endurance events. Sports Med. 2015; 45, S61–S69.
(4) Turner-McGrievy GM, Moore WJ, Barr-Anderson D. The Interconnectedness of Diet Choice and Distance Running: Results of the Research Understanding the Nutrition of Endurance Runners (RUNNER) Study. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2016 Jun;26(3):205–11.
(5) Hoffman MD. State of the Science—Ultraendurance Sports. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2016 Sep;11(6):831–2.
(6) Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT. Physiology and pathophysiology in ultra-marathon running. Frontiers in Physiology. 2018 Jun 1;9(634).
(7) Costa RJS, Hoffman M.D, Stellingwerff T. Considerations for ultra-endurance activities: Part 1-nutrition. Res. Sports Med. 2018; 1–16.
(8) Hoffman MD, Stellingwerff T, Costa RJS. Considerations for ultra-endurance activities: Part 2–hydration. Res. Sports Med. 2018, 1–13.
(9) Barrero A, Erola P, Bescós R. Energy Balance of Triathletes during an Ultra-Endurance Event. Nutrients. 2014 Dec 31;7(1):209–22.
(10) Costa RJS, Gill SK, Hankey J, Wright A, Marczak S. Perturbed energy balance and hydration status in ultra-endurance runners during a 24 h ultra-marathon. British Journal of Nutrition. 2014 May 13;112(3):428–37.
(11) Knechtle, B.; Enggist, A.; Jehle, T. Energy turnover at the Race Across AMerica (RAAM)—A case report. Int. J. Sports Med. 2005, 26, 499–503.
(12) Enqvist JK, Mattsson CM, Johansson PH, Brink-Elfegoun T, Bakkman L, Ekblom BT. Energy turnover during 24 hours and 6 days of adventure racing. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2010 Jul;28(9):947–55.
(13) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Andonie JL, Kohler G. Body Composition, Energy, and Fluid Turnover in a Five-Day Multistage Ultratriathlon: A Case Study. Research in Sports Medicine. 2009 Jun 2;17(2):95–111.
(14) Lindeman AK. Nutrient Intake of an Ultraendurance Cyclist. International Journal of Sport Nutrition. 1991 Mar;1(1):79–85.
(15) Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, Emmanuel H, Ganio MS, Klau JF, Lee EC, et al. Nutritional, Physiological, and Perceptual Responses During a Summer Ultraendurance Cycling Event. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2012 Feb;26(2):307–18.
(16) Onywera VO, Kiplamai FK, Tuitoek PJ, Boit MK, Pitsiladis YP. Food and Macronutrient Intake of Elite Kenyan Distance Runners. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2004 Dec;14(6):709–19.
(17) Ramos-Campo DJ, Ávila-Gandía V, Alacid F, Soto-Méndez F, Alcaraz PE, López-Román FJ, et al. Muscle damage, physiological changes, and energy balance in ultra-endurance mountain-event athletes. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2016 Aug;41(8):872–8.
(18) Machefer G, Groussard C, Zouhal H, Vincent S, Youssef H, Faure H, et al. Nutritional and Plasmatic Antioxidant Vitamins Status of Ultra Endurance Athletes. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2007 Aug;26(4):311–6.
(19) Geesmann B, Gibbs JC, Mester J, Koehler K. Association Between Energy Balance and Metabolic Hormone Suppression During Ultraendurance Exercise. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2017 Aug;12(7):984–9.
(20) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rust CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Finishers and non-finishers in the ‘Swiss Cycling Marathon’ to qualify for the ‘Race Aacross America’. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2011; 25, 3257–3263.
(21) Black KE, Skidmore PML, Brown RC. Energy Intakes of Ultraendurance Cyclists During Competition, an Observational Study. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2012 Feb;22(1):19–23.
(22) Stewart IB, Stewart KL. Energy balance during two days of continuous stationary cycling. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2007 Oct 31;4(1).
(23) Beat Knechtle, Philipp Knechtle, Heusser D. Energieumsatz bei Langstreckenschwimmen - eine Fallbeschreibung. 2004 Jan 1; 33, 18–23.
(24) Knechtle B, Baumann B, Knechtle P. Effect of ultra-endurance swimming on body composition–marathon swim 2006 from Rapperswil to Zürich. Praxis 2007; 96, 585–589.
(25) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Kohler G, Rosemann T. Does a 24-hour ultra-swimming lead to dehydration? J. Hum. Sport Exerc. 2011; 6, 68–79.
(26) Knechtle B, Früh H.R, Knechtle P, Schück R, Kohler G. A 12 hour indoor cycling marathon leads to a measurable decrease of adipose subcutaneous tissue. Praxis 2007; 96, 1071–1077.
(27) Bescós R, Rodríguez FA, Iglesias X, Benítez A, Marina M, Padullés JM, et al. High Energy Deficit in an Ultraendurance Athlete in a 24-Hour Ultracycling Race. Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings. 2012 Apr;25(2):124–8.
(28) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Müller G, Zwyssig D. Energieumsatz an einem 24 stunden Radrennen: Verhalten von Körpergewicht und Subkutanfett. Österreichisches J. Für Sportmed. 2003; 33, 11–18.
(29) White JA, Ward C, Nelson H. Ergogenic demands of a 24 hour cycling event. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 1984 Sep 1;18(3):165–71.
(30) Peters EM. Nutritional aspects in ultra-endurance exercise. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2003, 6, 427–434.
(31) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Kohler G. The effect of 1,000 km nonstop cycling on fat mass and skeletal muscle mass. Res. Sports Med. 2011; 19, 170–185.
(32) Bircher S, Enggist A, Jehle T, Beat Knechtle. Effects of an extreme endurance race on energy balance and body composition - a case study. PubMed. 2006 Jan 1; 5, 154–162.
(33) O’Hara W, Allen CE, Shephard RJ, Gill JW. LaTulippe--a case study of a one hundred and sixty kilometre runner. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 1977 Jun 1;11(2):83–7.
(34) Knechtle B, Knechtle P. Run across Switzerland–effect on body fat and muscle mass. Praxis 2007; 96, 281–286.
(35) Knechtle B, Pitre J, Chandler C. Food habits and use of supplements in extreme endurance cyclists—The Race Across AMerica (RAAM). Schweiz. Z. Für Sportmed. Und Sporttraumatologie 2007; 55, 102–106.
(36) Koehler K, Huelsemann F, de Marees M, Braunstein B, Braun H, Schaenzer W. Case Study: Simulated and Real-Life Energy Expenditure During a 3-Week Expedition. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2011 Dec;21(6):520–6.
(37) Knechtle B, Senn O, Imoberdorf R, Joleska I, Wirth A, Knechtle P, Rosemann, T. Maintained total body water content and serum sodium concentrations despite body mass loss in female ultra-runners drinking ad libitum during a 100 km race. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010; 19, 83–90.
(38) Knechtle B, Senn O, Imoberdorf R, Joleska I, Wirth A, Knechtle P, et al. No Fluid Overload in Male Ultra-Runners During a 100 km Ultra-Run. Research in Sports Medicine. 2010 Dec 30;19(1):14–27.
(39) Knechtle B, Vinzent T, Kirby S, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. The Recovery Phase Following a Triple Iron Triathlon. Journal of Human Kinetics. 2009 Jan 1;21(1):65–74.
(40) Gejl KD, Thams LB, Hansen M, Rokkedal-Lausch T, Plomgaard P, Nybo L, et al. No Superior Adaptations to Carbohydrate Periodization in Elite Endurance Athletes. Medicine and science in sports and exercise [Internet]. 2017;49(12):2486–97. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28723843/
(41) Knechtle B, Bisig A, Schläpfer F, Zwyssig D. Energy metabolism in long-term endurance sports: A case study. Praxis 2003; 92, 859–864.
(42) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Schück R, Andonie J, Kohler G. Effects of a Deca Iron Triathlon on Body Composition - A Case Study. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 2008 Apr;29(4):343–51.
(43) Gill S, Hankey J, Wright A, Marczak S, Hemming K, Allerton D, et al. The Impact of a 24-h Ultra-Marathon on Circulatory Endotoxin and Cytokine Profile. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 2015 May 5;36(08):688–95.
(44) Gill SK, Teixeira A, Rama L, Jonato Prestes, Rosado F, Hankey J, et al. Circulatory endotoxin concentration and cytokine profile in response to exertional-heat stress during a multi-stage ultra-marathon competition. PubMed. 2015 Jan 1;21:114–28.
(45) Paulin S, Roberts J, Roberts M, Davis I. A case study evaluation of competitors undertaking an antarctic ultra-endurance event: nutrition, hydration and body composition variables. Extreme Physiology & Medicine. 2015 Mar 12;4(1).
(46) Knechtle B, Wirth A, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. Increase of Total Body Water With Decrease of Body Mass While Running 100 km Nonstop—Formation of Edema? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2009 Sep;80(3):593–603.
(47) Knechtle B, Wirth A, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. An Ultra-cycling Race Leads to no Decrease in Skeletal Muscle Mass. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 2009 Feb 6;30(03):163–7.
(48) Knechtle B, Kohler G. Running 338 km within 5 days has no effect on body mass and body fat but reduces skeletal muscle mass—The Isarrun. J. Sports Sci. Med. 2007; 6, 401–407.
(49) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Kaul R, Kohler G. No Change of Body Mass, Fat Mass, and Skeletal Muscle Mass in Ultraendurance Swimmers After 12 Hours of Swimming. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2009 Mar;80(1):62–70.
(50) Weitkunat T, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T. Body composition and hydration status changes in male and female open-water swimmers during an ultra-endurance event. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2012 Jun;30(10):1003–13.
(51) Knechtle B, Zimmermann K, Wirth A, Knechtle P, Kohler G. 12 hours running results in a decrease of the subcutaneous adipose tissue. Praxis 2007; 96, 1423–1429.
(52) Knechtle B, Duff B, Schulze I, Kohler G. A multi-stage ultra-endurance run over 1,200 km leads to a continuous accumulation of total body water. J. Sports Sci. Med. 2008; 7, 357–364.
(53) Knechtle B, Marchand Y. Schwankungen des Körpergewichts und der hautfaltendicke bei einem Athleten während eines Extremausdauerwettkampfes. Schweiz. Z. Für Sportmed. Und Sporttraumatologie 2003; 51, 174–178.
(54) Beat Knechtle, Baumann B, Wirth A, Patrizia Knechtle, Rosemann T. Male ironman triathletes lose skeletal muscle mass. PubMed. 2010 Jan 1;19(1):91–7.
(55) Beat Knechtle, Patrizia Knechtle, Rosemann T, Oliver S. A Triple Iron Triathlon Leads to a Decrease in Total Body Mass But Not to Dehydration. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2010 Sep 1;81(3):319–27.
(56) Knechtle B, Salas Fraire O, Andonie JL, Kohler G. Effect of a multistage ultra-endurance triathlon on body composition: World Challenge Deca Iron Triathlon 2006. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2007 Jun 4;42(2):121–5.
(57) Piacentini MF, De Ioannon G, Cibelli G, Mignardi S, Antonelli A, Capranica L. Training for a 78-km solo open water swim. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 2017 May;57(6).
(58) Rüst CA, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. Similarities and differences in anthropometry and training between recreational male 100-km ultra-marathoners and marathoners. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2012 Aug;30(12):1249–57.
(59) Barr SI. Effects of Dehydration on Exercise Performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology. 1999 Apr;24(2):164–72.
(60) Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, Maughan RJ, Montain SJ, Stachenfeld, NS. American college of sports medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2007; 39, 377–390.
(61) Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. American College of sports medicine joint position statement. Nutrition and athletic performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2016; 48, 543–568.
(62) Cheuvront SN, Carter R, Castellani JW, Sawka MN. Hypohydration impairs endurance exercise performance in temperate but not cold air. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2005 Nov;99(5):1972–6.
(63) Glace B, Murphy C, McHugh M. Food and Fluid Intake and Disturbances in Gastrointestinal and Mental Function during an Ultramarathon. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2002 Dec;12(4):414–27.
(64) Lebus DK, Casazza GA, Hoffman MD, Van Loan MD. Can Changes in Body Mass and Total Body Water Accurately Predict Hyponatremia After a 161-km Running Race? Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 2010 May;20(3):193–9.
(65) Knechtle B, Morales NPH, González ER, Gutierrez AAA, Sevilla JN, Gómez RA, et al. Effect of a multistage ultraendurance triathlon on aldosterone, vasopressin, extracellular water and urine electrolytes. Scottish Medical Journal [Internet]. 2012 Feb 1 [cited 2024 Mar 20];57(1):26–32. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22408212/
(66) Mischler I, Boirie Y, Gachon P, Pialoux V, Mounier R, Rousset P, et al. Human Albumin Synthesis Is Increased by an Ultra-Endurance Trial. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2003 Jan;35(1):75–81.
(67) Neumayr G, Pfister R, Hoertnagl H, Mitterbauer G, Prokop W, Joannidis M. Renal Function and Plasma Volume Following Ultramarathon Cycling. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 2005 Jan;26(01/02):2–8.
(68) Keul J, Kohler B, von Glutz G, Lüthi U, Berg A, Howald H. Biochemical changes in a 100 km run: Carbohydrates, lipids, and hormones in serum. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 1981 Oct;47(2):181–9.
(69) N Fellmann, Ritz P, J Ribeyre, B Beaufrère, M Delaître, J Coudert. Intracellular hyperhydration induced by a 7-day endurance race. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 1999 Aug 1;80(4):353–9.
(70) Bracher A, Knechtle B, Gnädinger M, Bürge J, Rüst CA, Knechtle P, et al. Fluid intake and changes in limb volumes in male ultra-marathoners: does fluid overload lead to peripheral oedema? European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2011 Jul 1;112(3):991–1003.
(71) Cejka C, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rüst C, Rosemann T. An increased fluid intake leads to feet swelling in 100-km ultra-marathoners - an observational field study. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2012;9(1):11.
(72) Noakes TD, Sharwood K, Speedy D, Hew T, Reid S, Dugas J, et al. Three independent biological mechanisms cause exercise-associated hyponatremia: Evidence from 2,135 weighed competitive athletic performances. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2005 Dec 12;102(51):18550–5.
(73) Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK. Water intoxication: A possible complication during endurance exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1985; 17, 370–375.
(74) Barr SI, Costill DL. Water: Can the endurance athlete get too much of a good thing? Journal of the American Dietetic Association [Internet]. 1989 Nov 1 [cited 2021 Sep 17];89(11):1629–31. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0002822321024330
(75) Noakes TD, Adams BA, Myburgh KH, Greeff C, Lotz T, Nathan M. The danger of an inadequate water intake during prolonged exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 1988;57(2):210–9.
(76) Noakes TD. Case proven: exercise associated hyponatraemia is due to overdrinking. So why did it take 20 years before the original evidence was accepted? British Journal of Sports Medicine [Internet]. 2006 May 10;40(7):567–72. Available from: https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/40/7/567
(77) Wagner S, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T. Higher prevalence of exercise-associated hyponatremia in female than in male open-water ultra-endurance swimmers: the “Marathon-Swim” in Lake Zurich. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2011 Jul 12;112(3):1095–106.
(78) Rosner MH. Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia. The Physician and Sportsmedicine. 2008 Jan;36(1):55–61.
(79) Stuempfle KJ, Lehmann DR, H Samuel Case, Bailey S, Sherri Lind Hughes, McKenzie J, et al. Hyponatremia in a cold weather ultraendurance race. PubMed. 2002 Dec 25;44(3):51–5.
(80) Rothwell SP, Rosengren DJ, Rojek AM, Williams JM, Lukin WG, Greenslade J. Exercise-associated hyponatraemia on the Kokoda Trail. Emergency Medicine Australasia. 2011 Sep 7;23(6):712–6.
(81) Chorley J, Cianca J, Divine J. Risk Factors for Exercise-associated Hyponatremia in Non-elite Marathon Runners. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 2007 Nov;17(6):471–7.
(82) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. Do Male 100-km Ultra-Marathoners Overdrink? International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2011 Jun;6(2):195–207.
(83) Page AJ, Reid SA, Speedy DB, Mulligan GP, Thompson J. Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia, Renal Function, and Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drug Use in an Ultraendurance Mountain Run. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 2007 Jan;17(1):43–8.
(84) Knechtle B, Gnädinger M, Knechtle P, Imoberdorf R, Kohler G, Ballmer P, et al. Prevalence of Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia in Male Ultraendurance Athletes. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 2011 May;21(3):226–32.
(85) Kipps C, Sharma S, Pedoe DT. The incidence of exercise-associated hyponatraemia in the London marathon. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2009 Jul 20;45(1):14–9.
(86) Hoffman MD, Stuempfle KJ, Rogers IR, Weschler LB, Hew-Butler T. Hyponatremia in the 2009 161-km Western States Endurance Run. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2012 Mar;7(1):6–10.
(87) Rüst CA, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. No case of exercise-associated hyponatraemia in top male ultra-endurance cyclists: the “Swiss Cycling Marathon.” European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2011 Jun 9;112(2):689–97.
(88) Speedy DB, Noakes TD, Rogers IR, Thompson JM, Campbell RG, Kuttner JA, et al. Hyponatremia in ultradistance triathletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 1999 Jun;31(6):809–15.
(89) Schenk K, Gatterer H, Ferrari M, Ferrari P, Cascio VL, Burtscher M. Bike Transalp 2008: Liquid Intake and Its Effect on the Bodyʼs Fluid Homeostasis in the Course of a Multistage, Cross-Country, MTB Marathon Race in the Central Alps. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 2010 Jan;20(1):47–52.
(90) Dugas JP. Hyponatraemic encephalopathy despite a modest rate of fluid intake during a 109 km cycle race * Commentary. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2005 Oct 1;39(10):e38–8.
(91) J. Bürge, B. Knechtle, P. Knechtle, M. Gnädinger, Rüst CA, Rosemann T. Maintained Serum Sodium in Male Ultra-Marathoners – The Role of Fluid Intake, Vasopressin, and Aldosterone in Fluid and Electrolyte Regulation. Hormone and Metabolic Research. 2011 Aug 1;43(09):646–52.
(92) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. No Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Found in an Observational Field Study of Male Ultra-Marathoners Participating in a 24-Hour Ultra-Run. The Physician and Sportsmedicine. 2010 Dec;38(4):94–100.
(93) Stuempfle KJ, Lehmann DR, Case HS, Hughes SL, Evans D. Change in Serum Sodium Concentration During a Cold Weather Ultradistance Race. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 2003 May;13(3):171–5.
(94) Speedy DB, Campbell R, Mulligan G, Robinson DJ, Walker C, Gallagher P, et al. Weight Changes and Serum Sodium Concentrations After an Ultradistance Multisport Triathlon. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 1997 Apr;7(2):100–3.
(95) Wharam PC, Speedy DB, Noakes TD, Thompson JM, Reid SA, Holtzhausen LM. NSAID Use Increases the Risk of Developing Hyponatremia during an Ironman Triathlon. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2006 Apr;38(4):618–22.
(96) Speedy DB, Faris JG, Hamlin M, Gallagher PG, Campbell RGD. Hyponatremia and Weight Changes in an Ultradistance Triathlon. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 1997 Jul;7(3):180–4.
(97) Speedy DB, Noakes TD, Kimber NE, Rogers IR, Thompson JMD, Boswell DR, et al. Fluid Balance During and After an Ironman Triathlon. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 2001 Jan;11(1):44–50.
(98) Rüst CA, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. Higher Prevalence of Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia in Triple Iron Ultra-Triathletes Than Reported for Ironman Triathletes. Chinese Journal of Physiology. 2012 Jun 30;55(3):147–55.
(99) Frohnauer A, Schwanke M, Kulow W, Kohler G, Knechtle B. Vitamins, minerals and race performance in ultra-endurance triathletes—Triple iron triathlon lensahn 2006. Pak. J. Nutr. 2008; 7, 283–286.
(100) Leonardo-Mendonça RC, Concepción-Huertas M, Guerra-Hernández E, Zabala M, Escames G, Acuña-Castroviejo D. Redox status and antioxidant response in professional cyclists during training. European Journal of Sport Science. 2014 May 7;14(8):830–8.
(101) Nolte H, Noakes TD, Van Vuuren B. Ad Libitum Fluid Replacement in Military Personnel during a 4-h Route March. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2010 Sep;42(9):1675–80.
(102) Rehrer NJ, Beckers EJ, Brouns F, Hoor FT, Saris WH. Effects of dehydration on gastric emptying and gastrointestinal distress while running. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 1990 Dec;22(6):790.
(103) Eden BD, Abernethy PJ. Nutritional Intake during an Ultraendurance Running Race. International Journal of Sport Nutrition. 1994 Jun;4(2):166–74.
(104) Fallon KE, Broad E, Thompson MW, Reull PA. Nutritional and Fluid Intake in a 100-km Ultramarathon. International Journal of Sport Nutrition. 1998 Mar;8(1):24–35.
(105) Knechtle Beat, Knechtle Patrizia, Kaul Rene. Nutritional Practices of Extreme Endurance Swimmers the Marathon-Swim in the Lake of Zurich 2006. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 2007 Feb 1;6(2):188–93.
(106) Knechtle B, Müller G. Ernährung bei einem Extremausdauerwettkampf. Dtsch. Z. Für Sportmed. 2002; 53, 54–57.
(107) Jeukendrup A. A Step Towards Personalized Sports Nutrition: Carbohydrate Intake During Exercise. Sports Medicine. 2014 May;44(S1):25–33.
(108) Martinez S, Aguilo A, Rodas L, Lozano L, Moreno C, Tauler P. Energy, macronutrient and water intake during a mountain ultramarathon event: The influence of distance. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2017 Mar 21;36(3):333–9.
(109) McCubbin AJ, Cox GR, Broad EM. Case Study: Nutrition Planning and Intake for Marathon des Sables—A Series of Five Runners. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2016 Dec;26(6):581–7.
(110) Dempster S, Britton R, Murray A, Costa RJ. Case study: Nutrition and hydration status during 4254 km of running over 78 consecutive days. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2013; 23, 533–541.
(111) Kumstát M, Rybářová S, Thomas A, Novotný J. Case Study: Competition Nutrition Intakes During the Open Water Swimming Grand Prix Races in Elite Female Swimmer. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2016 Aug;26(4):370–6.
(112) Wilson PB, Rhodes GS, Ingraham SJ. Saccharide Composition of Carbohydrates Consumed during an Ultra-endurance Triathlon. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2015 May 5;34(6):497–506.
(113) Hultman E, Bergström J. Muscle Glycogen Synthesis in Relation to Diet Studied in Normal Subjects. Acta Medica Scandinavica. 2009 Apr 24;182(1):109–17.
(114) Sherman W, Costill D, Fink W, Miller J. Effect of Exercise-Diet Manipulation on Muscle Glycogen and Its Subsequent Utilization During Performance*. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 1981 May;02(02):114–8.
(115) Bussau V, Fairchild T, Rao A, Steele P, Fournier P. Carbohydrate loading in human muscle: an improved 1 day protocol. European Journal of Applied Physiology [Internet]. 2002 Jul 1;87(3):290–5. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00421-002-0621-5
(116) Hawley JA, Schabort EJ, Noakes TD, Dennis SC. Carbohydrate-loading and exercise performance. An update. Sports medicine (Auckland, NZ) [Internet]. 1997;24(2):73–81. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9291549
(117) Jeukendrup AE. Periodized Nutrition for Athletes. Sports Medicine (Auckland, NZ). 2017;47(Suppl 1):51–63.
(118) Hawley JA, Brouns F, Jeukendrup A. Strategies to Enhance Fat Utilisation During Exercise. Sports Medicine. 1998;25(4):241–57.
(119) Miller S, Wolfe R. Physical exercise as a modulator of adaptation to low and high carbohydrate and low and high fat intakes. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1999 Apr;53(S1):s112–9.
(120) Carey AL, Staudacher HM, Cummings NK, Stepto NK, Nikolopoulos V, Burke LM, et al. Effects of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on prolonged endurance exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2001 Jul;91(1):115–22.
(121) Staudacher HM, Carey AL, Cummings NK, Hawley JA, Burke LM. Short-Term High-Fat Diet Alters Substrate Utilization during Exercise but Not Glucose Tolerance in Highly Trained Athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2001 Sep;11(3):273–86.
(122) Burke LM, Hawley JA, Angus DJ, Cox GR, Clark SA, Cummings NK, Desbrow B, et al. Adaptations to short-term high-fat diet persist during exercise despite high carbohydrate availability. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2002 Jan;34(1):83–91.
(123) Robins AL, Davies DM, Jones GE. The effect of nutritional manipulation on ultra-endurance performance: a case study. Research in Sports Medicine (Print) [Internet]. 2005 Jul 1 [cited 2022 Jan 16];13(3):199–215. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16392536/
(124) Knechtle B, Bircher S. Changes in body composition during an extreme endurance run. Praxis 2005; 94, 371–377.
(125) Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Mrazek C, Senn O, Rosemann T, Imoberdorf R, et al. No effect of short-term amino acid supplementation on variables related to skeletal muscle damage in 100 km ultra-runners - a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition [Internet]. 2011 Apr 7 [cited 2020 Aug 14];8:6. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3079604/
(126) Knechtle B, Schulze I. Ernährungsverhalten bei Ultraläufern - Deutschlandlauf 2006. Praxis. 2008 Mar 1;97(5):243–51.
(127) Knez WL, Peake JM. The Prevalence of Vitamin Supplementation in Ultraendurance Triathletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2010 Dec;20(6):507–14.
(128) Morrison D, Hughes J, Della Gatta PA, Mason S, Lamon S, Russell AP, et al. Vitamin C and E supplementation prevents some of the cellular adaptations to endurance-training in humans. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2015 Dec;89:852–62.
(129) Marshall H, Chrismas BCR, Suckling CA, Roberts JD, Foster J, Taylor L. Chronic probiotic supplementation with or without glutamine does not influence the eHsp72 response to a multi-day ultra-endurance exercise event. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2017 Aug;42(8):876–83.
(130) Carter JE, Gisolfi CV. Fluid replacement during and after exercise in the heat. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 1989 Oct;21(5):532–539.
(131) Hew-Butler TD. Sodium supplementation is not required to maintain serum sodium concentrations during an Ironman triathlon. British Journal of Sports Medicine [Internet]. 2006 Mar 1;40(3):255–9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2492002/
(132) Hood DA, Kelton R, Nishio ML. Mitochondrial adaptations to chronic muscle use: Effect of iron deficiency. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Comp. Physiol. 1992; 101, 597–605.
(133) Burke L, Deakin V. Clinical Sports Nutrition. McGraw-Hill Australia; 2006.
___________________________________
OBS.:
Image by wirestock on Freepik
Article adapted and translated into Portuguese by the editors of NADAR! SWIMMING MAGAZINE for republication, in accordance with the periodical's submission rules. Original version at: https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/10/12/1995 ORIGINAL AND ADAPTATION LICENSE: © 2018 by the authors. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Publicado
Como Citar
Edição
Seção
ARK
Licença
Copyright (c) 2024 Pantelis T Nikolaidis, Eleftherios Veniamakis, Thomas Rosemann, Beat Knechtle
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
